In 497 BCE, the fifty-five-year-old Confucius left the state of Lu and set out with a group of disciples on a journey across rival states that would last fourteen years.[1] It was a peculiar team: there was no fixed salary structure, no clear organizational hierarchy, and no quantifiable performance indicators. Sometimes they were received with courtesy by feudal lords; other times they were trapped between the states of Chen and Cai, "cut off from provisions for seven days," unable to get even a bowl of wild vegetable soup.[2] Yet this team, which by modern management standards would seem utterly "unprofessional," produced figures like Zigong, Zilu, Yan Hui, and Zengzi -- individuals who profoundly shaped the history of Chinese thought -- and established an intellectual tradition that has endured for two and a half millennia.

How exactly did Confucius manage this team? The twenty chapters and more than five hundred passages of the Analects record a wealth of dialogues and interactions between teacher and students. Viewed through the lens of modern Organizational Behavior and leadership theory, these seemingly scattered fragments actually constitute a complete management philosophy.

I. Teaching According to Aptitude: The Classical Paradigm of Situational Leadership

1.1 The Same Question, Different Answers

One of the most striking phenomena in the Analects is how Confucius gave different answers to the same question.

When Zilu asked, "Should one act immediately upon hearing a principle?" Confucius replied, "Your father and elder brother are still alive -- how can you act immediately upon hearing it?" But when Ran You asked the same question, Confucius said, "Yes, act on it immediately."[3]

The observing Gongxi Hua was puzzled and asked Confucius why he gave opposite answers. Confucius explained: "Ran You is hesitant and withdrawn, so I push him forward; Zilu is impulsive and overbold, so I hold him back."[4]

This dialogue perfectly illustrates the core concept of "Situational Leadership" in modern management.

1.2 The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Model

In 1969, Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard proposed the Situational Leadership Theory, arguing that effective leadership depends on the follower's "maturity" -- encompassing both ability and willingness.[5] Leaders should adopt different styles according to the employee's state:

  • Telling: For low-ability, high-willingness beginners, provide clear directives.
  • Selling: For those with some ability but low confidence, offer both direction and support.
  • Participating: For high-ability individuals with fluctuating motivation, focus on encouragement and collaboration.
  • Delegating: For high-ability, high-willingness mature employees, grant full autonomy.

Confucius's different responses to Zilu and Ran You were precisely adjustments based on their "maturity." Zilu had courage in excess but lacked prudence and needed to be "held back"; Ran You possessed ability but lacked confidence and needed to be "pushed forward." This individualized management approach predated the Hersey-Blanchard theory by over 2,400 years.

1.3 The Multiple Interpretations of "Ren" (Benevolence)

In the Analects, the character "ren" (benevolence) appears 109 times, yet Confucius never gave a single unified definition.[6] To Yan Yuan, he said "to restrain oneself and return to propriety is benevolence"; to Zhonggong, "do not impose on others what you do not wish for yourself"; to Fan Chi, simply "to love others"; and to Sima Niu, "the benevolent person is cautious in speech."[7]

Why did the same core concept receive so many different expressions? Because each disciple faced different problems, was at a different level, and needed to overcome different barriers. This method of "teaching according to aptitude" is, in essence, a highly personalized leadership strategy.

Modern educational psychologist Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences emphasizes that different learners have different intellectual strengths and learning styles.[8] Confucius's teaching practice was the classical version of this very concept.

II. Leveraging Strengths: Confucian Wisdom in Talent Allocation

2.1 The Four Disciplines and Ten Philosophers: The Prototype of Professional Specialization

The Analects, chapter "Xian Jin," records: "In virtuous conduct: Yan Yuan, Min Ziqian, Ran Boniu, Zhonggong. In speech: Zai Wo, Zigong. In government affairs: Ran You, Zilu. In literature and learning: Ziyou, Zixia."[9] This passage came to be known as the "Four Disciplines and Ten Philosophers" -- Confucius classified his most outstanding disciples according to four domains: virtue, speech, government, and literature.

This categorization reflects Confucius's clear recognition of talent "specialization." He did not expect every disciple to become a "generalist"; instead, he identified each person's area of strength and allowed them to develop deeply in their domain of excellence.

Management guru Peter Drucker once wrote: "The effective executive builds on strengths -- their own, their superiors', their colleagues', and their subordinates' strengths."[10] He emphasized that true performance comes from leveraging employees' strengths, not trying to remedy their weaknesses. Confucius's "Four Disciplines" classification was precisely this principle in practice.

2.2 Zigong's Growth Trajectory: From "Ritual Vessel" to "Comprehension"

Zigong (Duanmu Ci) was the most successful merchant and diplomat among Confucius's disciples, later honored as the "progenitor of the Confucian merchant." But his growth was shaped by Confucius's careful guidance.

Early on, Zigong asked Confucius, "What do you think of me?" Confucius answered, "You are a vessel." Zigong pressed further: "What kind of vessel?" Confucius replied, "A hu-lian" -- a precious ritual vessel used in ancestral temple ceremonies.[11] The hu-lian was a vessel of great value, but a vessel nonetheless -- "The junzi (exemplary person) is not a vessel," meaning a true exemplary person should not be merely a tool.

This assessment was both an affirmation and an aspiration. Confucius recognized Zigong's talents (eloquence and commercial acumen) but also reminded him not to stop there. Later, when someone asked Zigong how Confucius could be so broadly learned, Zigong answered with composure: "The Master learns from everything -- where does he have a single fixed teacher?"[12] This reply shows that Zigong had come to understand Confucius's spirit of lifelong learning, elevating himself beyond the level of a mere "vessel."

Elsewhere in the Analects, Confucius evaluated Zigong as "da" -- a person of comprehensive understanding.[13] From "hu-lian" to "da" traces Zigong's growth trajectory under Confucius's guidance.

2.3 Specific Cases of Knowing and Deploying Talent

Confucius's deep understanding of talent is evident in many specific assessments:

  • On Zilu: "Zhongyou could manage the military affairs of a state with a thousand chariots."[14]
  • On Ran You: "Ran Qiu could serve as steward of a large estate or a noble house."
  • On Gongxi Hua: "Gongxi Chi, dressed formally and standing at court, could handle diplomatic receptions."

These assessments are strikingly precise. Confucius did not offer vague praise like "they are all excellent"; instead, he specifically identified the positions and functions each person was suited for. This ability to "know people" is the foundation of effective management.

Modern human resource management emphasizes "Person-Job Fit" and "Person-Organization Fit," arguing that employee performance and satisfaction depend on the alignment between personal characteristics and job requirements.[15] Confucius's assessments of his disciples were the classical practice of this very concept.

III. Leading by Example: The Archetype of Transformational Leadership

3.1 "When the Leader Is Upright, Things Get Done Without Orders"

The Analects, chapter "Zilu," records Confucius's famous statement on leadership: "When the leader is upright, things get done without orders being given; when the leader is not upright, orders will not be followed even when given."[16]

This view is highly consistent with the concept of "Idealized Influence" in modern Transformational Leadership theory.

3.2 Bernard Bass's Transformational Leadership Theory

In 1985, Bernard Bass systematically presented the Transformational Leadership theory, proposing that transformational leaders influence followers through four channels:[17]

  • Idealized Influence: The leader serves as a moral exemplar, earning followers' respect and trust.
  • Inspirational Motivation: Articulating a vision that ignites followers' passion and commitment.
  • Intellectual Stimulation: Challenging existing assumptions, encouraging innovation and independent thinking.
  • Individualized Consideration: Attending to each follower's needs and development.

Confucius's leadership style encompassed virtually all four dimensions.

3.3 Confucius's Transformational Leadership in Practice

Idealized Influence: Confucius himself was the exemplar of the "junzi" (exemplary person) he advocated. His disciples observed that he was "gentle yet firm, dignified yet not fierce, respectful yet composed."[18] This power of leading by example was the fundamental reason he won his disciples' loyalty.

Inspirational Motivation: Confucius painted for his disciples an ideal realm of "the Way" (dao). His declaration -- "If I could hear the Way in the morning, I would be content to die that evening" -- conveyed an infectious passion for truth.[19] Though his travels across states met with repeated rejection, his spirit of "persevering even when knowing the cause is hopeless" inspired his disciples to hold fast to their ideals.[20]

Intellectual Stimulation: Confucius's teaching method centered on elicitation. "I do not enlighten those who are not eager to learn; I do not assist those who are not struggling to express themselves. If I raise one corner and they cannot infer the other three, I do not repeat the lesson."[21] Rather than giving direct answers, he offered hints when students were struggling and required them to extrapolate. This method cultivated his disciples' capacity for independent thinking.

Individualized Consideration: As discussed earlier, Confucius's "teaching according to aptitude" was precisely the individualized attention given to each disciple. He understood Zilu's impetuousness, Ran You's timidity, Zai Yu's laziness, and Yan Hui's self-discipline, and provided different guidance based on each person's traits.

IV. Constructive Conflict: Managing Team Dynamics

4.1 Zilu's Challenges and Confucius's Responses

Among Confucius's disciples, Zilu was the one most willing to speak up and challenge the master. The Analects records multiple instances of "conflict" between Zilu and Confucius.

The most famous was the "Meeting with Nanzi" incident. Nanzi, the consort of Duke Ling of Wei, was renowned for her beauty and notoriety. Yet Confucius went to meet her. Zilu was deeply displeased, feeling that the Master had compromised his reputation. Confucius swore an oath to Heaven: "If I have done anything improper, may Heaven reject me! May Heaven reject me!"[22]

This passage is deeply thought-provoking. Confucius did not reprimand Zilu for "disrespecting his teacher." Instead, he earnestly explained himself and swore an oath to clear his name. This shows that Confucius permitted his disciples to question him and even regarded such questioning as a normal part of team interaction.

4.2 The Value of Constructive Conflict

Research in organizational behavior has shown that moderate levels of conflict have a positive impact on team performance. Karen Jehn's research distinguished between "Task Conflict" and "Relationship Conflict": the former involves disagreements about work content, while the latter involves interpersonal hostility. Moderate task conflict can promote innovation and decision quality, whereas relationship conflict is generally harmful.[23]

Conflicts within Confucius's school were largely "task conflicts" -- disciples questioned Confucius's judgments or actions, not out of personal animosity. Confucius never treated such questioning as an affront to his authority but responded with patience. This open atmosphere enabled genuine intellectual exchange rather than a one-voice echo chamber.

4.3 Candor: Building Psychological Safety

Harvard Business School professor Amy Edmondson introduced the concept of "Psychological Safety," defined as the shared belief within a team that members can freely express opinions without fear of punishment or ridicule.[24] Google's "Project Aristotle" found that psychological safety is the most important characteristic of high-performing teams.[25]

Confucius created a learning environment with a high degree of psychological safety. Disciples could ask "foolish" questions (such as Fan Chi asking about farming), challenge the master's decisions (such as Zilu's displeasure over the meeting with Nanzi), and express dissent (such as Zai Yu's objection to the three-year mourning period).[26] Confucius might criticize, but he never "dismissed" or marginalized disciples who held different views.

This culture of embracing diverse voices was a crucial foundation for the flourishing of intellectual thought within the Confucian school.

V. Motivation Mechanisms: Intrinsic Drive Beyond Material Rewards

5.1 How Does an Organization Without Salaries Function?

Confucius's "team" faced a challenge that modern enterprises can hardly imagine: there was no payroll budget. Disciples who followed Confucius not only received no compensation but might also have to bring their own provisions and endure the hardships of a wandering life. What made them willing to stay?

The Analects records Confucius's tuition standard: "I have never refused instruction to anyone who brought as little as a bundle of dried meat."[27] A bundle of dried meat -- ten strips -- was an extremely modest fee. In other words, Confucius's "business model" was not profit-driven at all.

So where did the disciples' motivation come from?

5.2 Self-Determination Theory and Intrinsic Motivation

Psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan's Self-Determination Theory identifies three basic psychological needs:[28]

  • Autonomy: The feeling that one's actions are voluntary rather than coerced.
  • Competence: The feeling of being capable of meeting challenges.
  • Relatedness: The feeling of connection and belonging with others.

When these three needs are satisfied, people develop strong "intrinsic motivation" and are willing to invest effort even without external rewards.

Confucius's school was built precisely on intrinsic motivation:

  • Autonomy: Disciples came to study of their own free will and could leave at any time (as Ran You and Zilu both eventually did when they entered government service).
  • Competence: Confucius's Socratic teaching method allowed disciples to experience continual moments of insight; teaching according to aptitude ensured that each person grew at the edge of their capabilities.
  • Relatedness: The Confucian school formed a close-knit intellectual community. Disciples referred to each other as "our group," cultivating a strong sense of identity.

5.3 The Example of Yan Hui: Fulfillment Beyond Material Wealth

Yan Hui, Confucius's most admired disciple, lived a life of extreme poverty: "A single bowl of rice, a single ladle of water, living in a narrow alley -- others could not bear such misery, yet Hui never lost his joy."[29] One bowl of rice, one ladle of water, dwelling in a shabby lane -- others found it unbearable, yet Yan Hui relished it.

This state of "finding contentment in poverty while pursuing the Way" is the ultimate expression of intrinsic motivation. The satisfaction Yan Hui derived from learning itself far surpassed any happiness that material comforts could provide. Confucius praised him for being able to "sustain benevolence in his heart for three months," meaning he could maintain an optimal spiritual state for extended periods.[30]

Of course, not every disciple could attain Yan Hui's level. Zigong was quite attentive to material success, and Confucius did not force him to be otherwise. This once again reflects the principle of teaching according to aptitude -- applying different motivational approaches to disciples with different motivation profiles.

VI. Organizational Culture: "Li" (Propriety) as Behavioral Norms

6.1 The Managerial Significance of Li

In Confucius's thought, "li" (propriety/ritual) is a core concept. Traditionally, "li" has often been understood as empty formality or a feudal hierarchy. But from the perspective of organizational behavior, "li" was in fact a carefully designed set of "behavioral norms" for coordinating interpersonal interactions and maintaining organizational order.

The Analects, chapter "Xue Er," states: "In the application of li, harmony is to be valued."[31] This statement reveals the function of "li" -- promoting harmony. In organizations without the force of law (such as Confucius's school), mutually recognized behavioral norms are the key to maintaining order.

6.2 Schein's Three-Level Model of Organizational Culture

Organizational culture scholar Edgar Schein proposed a three-level model of organizational culture:[32]

  • Artifacts: Observable symbols, rituals, and behavioral patterns.
  • Espoused Values: The organization's publicly stated values and beliefs.
  • Basic Assumptions: Deep, taken-for-granted beliefs.

Confucius's "li" encompassed all three levels:

  • Artifacts: Specific rules of propriety, such as how to enter and exit, how to address others, and how to respond in various situations.
  • Espoused Values: Core values such as "ren" (benevolence), "yi" (righteousness), "zhong" (loyalty), and "xin" (trustworthiness).
  • Basic Assumptions: Human nature can be perfected through education; social order is built upon moral self-awareness.

6.3 Cultural Transmission and Organizational Sustainability

After Confucius's death, his disciples dispersed to various regions, yet the "organizational culture" of the Confucian school endured. Zengzi transmitted it to Zisi, Zisi transmitted it to Mencius, forming the orthodox lineage of the Confucian school.[33] This continuity of culture allowed Confucius's "organization" to far outlast his own lifetime.

Management research shows that a strong organizational culture is the key to corporate longevity. Jim Collins and Jerry Porras in Built to Last argued that companies that endure across generations all possess clear core values and a strong cultural identity.[34] The Confucian school is the classical example of such enduring organizational excellence.

VII. The Limits of Management: Confucius's Failures

7.1 Zai Yu: The Unmanageable Employee

Confucius was not omnipotent. The Analects also records his management failures.

Zai Yu (Zai Wo) was an outstanding disciple in the "speech" discipline, gifted in eloquence. But he had a fatal flaw: laziness. "Zai Yu slept during the day" -- and Confucius harshly rebuked him, saying "rotten wood cannot be carved; a wall of dung cannot be plastered."[35]

More importantly, Confucius admitted that he learned a lesson from Zai Yu: "Previously, in dealing with people, I listened to their words and trusted their conduct; now I listen to their words and observe their conduct. It was Zai Yu who made me change."[36]

This statement shows that Confucius, too, could be deceived by inconsistency between words and actions, and could make mistakes in managing people. His greatness lay in his ability to reflect and adjust.

7.2 Ran Qiu's Defection

Ran Qiu later entered the service of the Ji family, helping them accumulate wealth and increase taxes. Confucius was furious: "He is no disciple of mine. My students, you may beat the drum and attack him!"[37]

This was the most serious "defection" in the Confucian school. Ran Qiu's ability was beyond question (Confucius had said he could govern a large estate), but he chose a path that contradicted Confucius's values. This reminds us that even the most outstanding leader cannot guarantee that all followers will uphold shared values.

7.3 Lessons from Failure

These "failures" of Confucius offer important insights for modern managers:

  • Listen to words, but observe actions when selecting talent: Do not rely solely on interview performance; observe actual behavior.
  • Values alignment matters more than ability: Skills can be developed, but divergence in values is difficult to reconcile. Ran Qiu's ability was "A-level," but when his values deviated, he became a net liability to the organization.
  • Accept the limits of management: Not every person can be changed; not every relationship can be maintained. Sometimes, knowing when to let go is itself a form of wisdom.

VIII. From the Analects to the Modern Age: Management Wisdom Across the Centuries

8.1 The Revival of Eastern Management Thought

In the latter half of the twentieth century, as Japanese enterprises rose to prominence, Western management scholars began to re-examine Eastern management wisdom. William Ouchi's "Theory Z" and Richard Pascale and Anthony Athos's The Art of Japanese Management all attempted to draw management inspiration from Eastern culture.[38]

However, these studies mostly focused on Japanese corporate practices, rarely tracing directly back to the roots of Confucian thought. In fact, the Analects provides a more systematic management philosophy than any single corporate case study.

8.2 Contemporary Applications of Confucian Management

In recent years, some scholars have begun to systematically study the contributions of Confucian thought to management science. For example:

  • "Ren" (Benevolence) and Stakeholder Theory: The Confucian emphasis on caring for all people resonates with R. Edward Freeman's Stakeholder Theory -- that enterprises should not pursue only shareholder value but should consider all stakeholders, including employees, customers, and communities.[39]
  • "Yi" (Righteousness) and Business Ethics: The Confucian concept of "yi" emphasizes legitimacy and moral boundaries, providing a philosophical foundation for business ethics.
  • "Li" (Propriety) and Organizational Culture: As discussed above, "li" as behavioral norms offers a framework for organizational culture development.
  • "Zhongyong" (The Doctrine of the Mean) and Balanced Leadership: The "Doctrine of the Mean" emphasizes avoiding extremes and seeking balance, which aligns closely with the concept of "Paradoxical Leadership" in modern leadership research.[40]

8.3 Guarding Against Over-Idealization

Of course, we must also guard against over-idealizing or mythologizing the Analects. Confucius's thought was born in a specific historical context (the aristocratic society of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods), and some of its ideas (such as strict hierarchical order and biases against women) are not applicable to the modern world.

The wise approach is to take the essence and discard the dross. Confucius's ideas on individualized teaching, leading by example, recognizing and deploying talent, and fostering psychological safety possess a universal, cross-temporal relevance; while certain specific ritual norms and concepts of social hierarchy require critical examination.

Conclusion: Growing Through Dialogue

Returning to the original question: How did Confucius lead this "unprofessional" team to create such a profound and lasting impact?

The answer may lie in this: he established a prototype of the "Learning Organization."[41] In this organization, the leader is not an authority issuing orders but a mentor guiding learning; members are not passive employees executing instructions but active learners seeking knowledge; and the organization's goal is not short-term profit but long-term growth and the pursuit of meaning.

The very format of the Analects is itself significant -- it is a "book of dialogues," not a monologue. Confucius's wisdom was not generated in solitude but gradually took shape through dialogue, debate, conflict, and reconciliation with his disciples. This "dialogical management" is perhaps the most important insight Confucius left us.

Two thousand five hundred years later, as we face the VUCA (Volatile, Uncertain, Complex, Ambiguous) business environment, we might learn something from this ancient teacher: leadership is not about control but about inspiration; management is not about standardization but about individualized guidance; and organizational strength comes not from institutional rigidity but from cultural cohesion.

"Learning without thinking leads to confusion; thinking without learning leads to peril."[42] This adage reminds us that reading the Analects (learning) must be combined with reflection on the modern context (thinking) for us to truly transform classical wisdom into contemporary practice.

References

  1. Qian Mu, Biography of Confucius, Taipei: Dongda Books, 1987, pp. 89-112.
  2. Analects, "Wei Ling Gong": "While in Chen, their provisions were cut off; the followers fell ill and could not rise." ctext.org
  3. Analects, "Xian Jin." ctext.org
  4. Ibid.
  5. Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1969). Life cycle theory of leadership. Training & Development Journal, 23(5), 26-34.
  6. Yang Bojun, Annotated Translation of the Analects, Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1980, Introduction p. 12.
  7. Analects, "Yan Yuan." ctext.org
  8. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
  9. Analects, "Xian Jin." ctext.org
  10. Drucker, P. F. (1967). The Effective Executive. New York: Harper & Row, Chapter 4.
  11. Analects, "Gong Ye Chang." ctext.org
  12. Analects, "Zi Zhang." ctext.org
  13. Analects, "Yong Ye": "Ci is a man of comprehensive understanding -- what difficulty would he have in governing?" ctext.org
  14. Analects, "Gong Ye Chang." ctext.org
  15. Kristof-Brown, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals' fit at work: A meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58(2), 281-342. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00672.x
  16. Analects, "Zi Lu." ctext.org
  17. Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations. New York: Free Press.
  18. Analects, "Shu Er." ctext.org
  19. Analects, "Li Ren." ctext.org
  20. Analects, "Xian Wen": "Knowing it is impossible yet persevering." ctext.org
  21. Analects, "Shu Er." ctext.org
  22. Analects, "Yong Ye." ctext.org
  23. Jehn, K. A. (1995). A multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflict. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40(2), 256-282. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393638
  24. Edmondson, A. C. (1999). Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(2), 350-383. https://doi.org/10.2307/2666999
  25. Duhigg, C. (2016, February 25). What Google learned from its quest to build the perfect team. The New York Times Magazine. nytimes.com
  26. Analects, "Yang Huo": Zai Wo questions the three-year mourning period. ctext.org
  27. Analects, "Shu Er." ctext.org
  28. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
  29. Analects, "Yong Ye." ctext.org
  30. Analects, "Yong Ye": "Hui could sustain benevolence in his heart for three months." ctext.org
  31. Analects, "Xue Er." ctext.org
  32. Schein, E. H. (2010). Organizational Culture and Leadership (4th ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
  33. Records of the Grand Historian, "Hereditary House of Confucius"; Mencius, "Duke Wen of Teng, Part I." ctext.org
  34. Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (1994). Built to Last: Successful Habits of Visionary Companies. New York: HarperBusiness.
  35. Analects, "Gong Ye Chang." ctext.org
  36. Ibid.
  37. Analects, "Xian Jin." ctext.org
  38. Ouchi, W. G. (1981). Theory Z: How American Business Can Meet the Japanese Challenge. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley; Pascale, R. T., & Athos, A. G. (1981). The Art of Japanese Management. New York: Simon & Schuster.
  39. Freeman, R. E. (1984). Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach. Boston: Pitman.
  40. Zhang, Y., Waldman, D. A., Han, Y. L., & Li, X. B. (2015). Paradoxical leader behaviors in people management: Antecedents and consequences. Academy of Management Journal, 58(2), 538-566. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2012.0995
  41. Senge, P. M. (1990). The Fifth Discipline: The Art & Practice of The Learning Organization. New York: Doubleday.
  42. Analects, "Wei Zheng." ctext.org

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